As movement toward regional integration is developing in Europe and North America, the potential for international business and trade is increasing, along with an increase in the opportunities for sharing education and training programs. Teletraining offers the possibility of reducing the disparity between the more and less industrialized countries by communicating both technical information and expertise in a timely and cost-efficient manner. Teletraining (the use of teleconferencing for education and training purposes) is done internationally by corporations with an international presence and by educational institutions to exchange information and increase awareness. To avoid "cultural invasion" by the donor country and increase the chances for equalizing information and expertise via teletraining, those who provide either training or financial and technical assistance must learn the ways that their international audiences can learn best.
1.1 International Teletraining Models
International teletraining is defined
as education and training over telephone lines to learners in another country.
This kind of instruction occurs in a variety of ways:
This dearth of publications points to a short history and a corresponding lack of knowledge of a somewhat underdeveloped field. The international trainer in a highly technological country like the United States differs from learners in other countries in terms of resources, levels of technology, cultural background, and expertise (Murphy, 1988b). This paper gives information about cultural differences that impact the ways in which people learn.
1.3 Forms of International Teletraining
The delivery media used in teletraining
to international audiences are the same as those used for domestic purposes.
They are: audio, audiographic, and video teletraining, and computer-mediated
communication. Although these delivery systems are sometimes used separately,
the combination of systems lends force and sophistication not available
when only one medium is used.
2 Instructional Systems Design for International
Teletraining
Instructional systems design is a systematic
decision-making process for prescribing the optimal approach to attain
specific outcomes under given conditions (Reigeluth, 1983). Traditional
western-based models of instructional system design (e.g., Gagne &
Briggs, 1979; Dick & Carey, 1985) generally include the following phases:
analysis, instructional design, instructional development, implementation,
and evaluation. Each of these phases will be described in terms of international
teletraining applications.
The consequences are grave indeed for using traditional instructional design practices to prepare materials for international teletraining. Such factors as the educational system, the political situation, religion, communication patterns, and management styles play a significant role in the ways that individuals learn. If designers ignore these factors, students may resist learning. Alistair Stewart (1985) warned that technology transfer from a Western to a non-Western country may fail if instructional technologists use a "cookbook" approach to instructional design--based on western textbooks, knowledge, and practices--rather than adapt to the local situation.
3 Phases of Instructional System Design
3.1 Analysis Phase
The analysis phase normally consists of
an assessment of the instruction, the needs and characteristics of the
learners, the task to be accomplished, and the local resources. Traditional
approaches to needs assessment, which include interviews, observations,
examinations of records, surveys, and meetings may not be possible, may
be inappropriate, or may even be omitted in international settings (Rossett
& Saba, 1986).
Participatory needs analysis should include an analysis of the potential for local participation, the level of local participation, and ways to provide for the assessment (Kerr, 1982). A needs analysis in some cultures must also take advantage of the informal hierarchy: "There is a way to find out about people's needs (in the Philippines)...go to the market and listen and learn" (Josephine Majul, as reported in Gueulette, 1986, p. 13).
A recent teleconference between the U.S. and Turkey demonstrates what may occur when needs assessment is either inadequate or missing (Murphy, 1988a). The teleconference itself was the result of a carefully-planned partnership between the Turkish government, private industry, and higher education. The author, who planned and implemented it, was the only one who had an initial stake in its success. As a result, teleconferencing has not been used for distance teaching purposes since then. Only when one or more of the Turkish institutions identify their own needs and recognize that teleconferencing could effectively meet those needs will the medium be used to deliver instruction.
3.2 Instructional Design Phase
The phase of instructional design for
teletraining to an international audience requires the course designer
to prepare course materials that are appropriate for learners in terms
of both content and process. Instructional design normally creates a plan,
or "blueprint" that includes the determination of learning objectives and
instructional strategies along with the selection of forms of media and
testing. Instruction should be:
Role-playing, for example, which is known to have a powerful persuasive impact on Western learners (Fleming & Levie, 1978), may be an unacceptable form of instruction in cultures where it is not normally used. In an attempt to transfer a western management education program to Asian managers, role-playing was found to be ineffective, because the experiential learning model based on Western conceptions of adult learning opposes Asians' accustomed way of learning from their instructors, whom they hold in high esteem (Smart, 1983).
The "tyranny" of the examination system that exists in both developed and developing countries (Cookey, 1976) forces students to learn by rote rather than apply their knowledge to problem situations. Japanese managers, having been educated in a rote learning mode, would be unlikely to learn effectively if asked to do a problem-solving activity in front of their colleagues.
A top-down hierarchical form of decision-making found in many countries determines whether or not a teleconferencing medium will even be accepted. The officials at the top of the hierarchy may approve of the technology or may be apprehensive that it will interfere with existing cultural patterns. In India, for example, the village headman and the accountant are very powerful, and their power derives at least in part from the information they possess. If others are to have access to the same information, their own importance may be diminished (Bhalla & Jequier, 1988). Equal access to information tends to equalize power situations and upset the status quo. The authoritarian form of top-down decision-making typical of many countries could impede the adoption of teleconferencing, where all participants in remote rural areas would benefit from the same information.
The characteristics that distinguish one culture from another thus determine the design of instructional materials and the selection of instructional strategies. These materials and strategies must not only be based on realistic learning objectives but also include teaching techniques with which the learners are familiar.
3.3 Instructional Development Phase
Instructional development consists of
the production of the materials, including study guides and instructor's
guides. As effective teletraining relies in part on the designer's capacity
to incorporate visual materials appropriately into the instruction, designers
must adhere to cultural norms of color preference, direction of reading
and scanning, use of symbols, and perception patterns.
It is known that the manner in which learners read and write and accordingly scan pictures varies from one culture to another (Goldsmith, 1984). In most Western cultures, verbal messages are perceived as proceeding in a left-to-right, top-down direction. Learners in cultures that normally read from right to left, however, may find it difficult to understand a teletraining instructor who presents and illustrates graphical information in the opposite manner.
A study informally known as "Dinosaur Noses" demonstrated that Western subjects required longer to understand information that was presented in an unexpected manner. Those who saw the time line in Figure 1, in which information was presented in a normal pattern (i.e., left to right, top to bottom, and superordinate categories presented first instead of last), responded more accurately and promptly than those who saw the time line in Figure 2, the reversed-diagram (Winn, 1983; Winn & Holliday, 1982). Although the subjects in the study were able to "learn" a new scanning procedure with repeated learning tasks, learners in teletraining classes who must pay close attention to the content being presented are less likely to have the opportunity to relearn their scanning procedures.
That study pointed out the advantages of presenting information in the way that is most meaningful to learners. What happens when materials are presented in ways opposite to the accustomed practice? It is significant to note that, while most Asian languages are read vertically, from top to bottom and from right to left, literate Chinese are accustomed to reading text and graphics in a variety of directions, at least since the Cultural Revolution. The sequence of the four cartoons in Figure 3 reflects the traditional pattern (top to bottom, right to left), while the two writing styles in Figure 4 (vertical writing above the cartoon and horizontal writing under the drawing) reflect the variety of patterns currently found in Chinese publications. This variation would indicate that literate Chinese may understand a teletraining instructor who presents and illustrates graphical information in the Western manner, once they understand the "code" of presentation.
In all cases, the materials must reflect the culture's color preferences, symbols, and patterns of reading and perception. Involving an individual from the host culture in the development phase of the instructional materials can minimize cultural misunderstandings and misrepresentations.
3.4 Implementation Phase
This phase, which is the first direct
contact between the instructor and learners, is concerned with the implementation
of the plans made in the design and development phases and consists of
the delivery and management of the instructional program. Teletraining
delivery problems are compounded when the audience doesn't speak the same
language as the instructor, may be located on the other side of the world
(it may be midnight for such a class), and brings to the situation a diverse
set of culture-bound learning styles and beliefs.
The teletraining instructor must maintain a level of formality, timing, and credibility in keeping with the cultural expectations of the international audience. Differing expectations of formality may impede learning. Americans often have an informal delivery style, which includes calling students by their first names and expecting that they will do the same. The Japanese, on the other hand, address everyone by their last names, except those with whom they are most intimate, and they find the use of first names presumptuous and threatening (Copeland & Griggs, 1985).
International teletraining delivery is also influenced by what Geert Hofstede calls "power distance"--the extent to which a culture accepts unequal distribution of power. Many Eastern cultures accept that power-holders are entitled to special privileges (Hofstede, 1986). Power distance is compounded in Japan, where "saving face" is also a basic cultural characteristic (Kennedy, 1985). In Japan, therefore, a demonstration of greater ability or knowledge than one's superiors would be considered inappropriate behavior. AT&T training experts suggested that to avoid such an awkward situation, teletraining instructors should direct their questions to or through the ranking member of the remote audience (Chute & Shatzer, 1989).
The international teletraining instructor is integral to effective learning. Delivery strategies must reflect not only cultural norms such as levels of formality, power distance, scanning procedures, and language nuances, but also individual learning styles, needs, and background.
3.5 Evaluation Phase
Instructional evaluation is concerned
with understanding, assessing, and improving the design, development, and
implementation phases. Evaluation instruments must be reliable (measure
what it is intended to measure) and must provide valid results.
Those who have conducted cross-cultural evaluation studies (e.g., Patton, 1985; Cuthbert, 1985; Seefeldt, 1985) suggest that evaluation is a culturally-bound activity requiring that the methodologies and categories reflect cultural norms and practices. Foisting western practices (like evaluation methodologies, models, and categories) on other cultures will likely result in faulty conclusions and cultural bias. Qualitative evaluation (e.g., Miles & Huberman, 1984; Lincoln & Guba, 1985), which includes personal interviews, participant observation, and reflects the strong oral tradition of many developing countries (Cuthbert, 1985).
In many Eastern and Middle Eastern cultures, where a high value is placed on politeness, concern for the feelings of others, and saving face, learners are unlikely to criticize or evaluate the instruction. Evaluations "simply aren't done...in cultures where the only word for 'no' is 'yes'" (Wigglesworth, 1985).
An example of a successful evaluation is one that Florida State University conducted for Radio Santa Maria in the Dominican Republic. This evaluation was successful only because it was participatory and involved an analysis from the U.S., on-site observations and reviews, and briefing and debriefing sessions (Mayo, Green, & Vargas, 1985).
Culturally-sensitive evaluation must involve those from the local culture in both the selection of evaluation methodology and categories and in administering the evaluation itself.
4 Conclusion
Teletraining will not work in all international
situations. Costs may be prohibitive, the technological support may be
inadequate in the receiving country, or the medium may be impractical for
a variety of reasons. In most countries, national digital networks are
inadequate for teleconferencing. Kathleen Hansell (1988) noted that the
costs of international satellite video conferencing to Europe can be ten
times that of local (U.S.) programs. Additionally, in those countries where
a single telecommunications organization exists, transmission costs may
be too high to justify any form of teleconferencing.
Until expert systems can design instruction that will respond to individual differences, instructional designers cannot provide adequately for the vast heterogeneity among distance learners. International teletraining, which must additionally take into account a host of cultural issues, is even less likely to respond effectively to individual and cultural needs.
It is possible, however, to arrange for optimal learning in international teletraining settings. A reconceptualization, or "reinvention" (Gueulette, 1986) of the instructional design model--one based on principles instead of traditional practices--is likely to increase the chances for successful international teletraining. Optimal exchange of courseware may occur in twinning situations, like the spacebridge linking the U.S. and the Soviet Union. International linkages must take into consideration regulatory and technological specifications, along with a variety of political, cultural, and educational issues (Figure 5 outlines some of the cultural issues). Where Western notions of individualism and Eastern motivations of collectivism and harmony may collide, appropriate instructional design for international teletraining depends on an adherence to sound instructional design principles and specific cultural norms.
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Figure 2: Reverse-order sequencing
Figure 3: Chinese cartoons showing the traditional sequence
Figure 4: Chinese cartoon showing both vertical and horizontal writing
Figure 5: Cultural guidelines for international teletraining